The regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood, coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east and west, allowed for the development of one of the world's great civilizations. A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C., and a series of dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The last native dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 B.C., who in turn were replaced by the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. It was the Arabs who introduced Islam and the Arabic language in the 7th century and who ruled for the next six centuries. A local military caste, the Mamluks took control about 1250 and continued to govern after the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. Following the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became an important world transportation hub, but also fell heavily into debt. Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized control of Egypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the Ottoman Empire continued until 1914. Partially independent from the UK in 1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty with the overthrow of the British-backed monarchy in 1952. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population (the largest in the Arab world), limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress society. The government has struggled to meet the demands of Egypt's growing population through economic reform and massive investment in communications and physical infrastructure. Egyptian youth and opposition groups, inspired by events in Tunisia leading to overthrow of the government there, organized a "Day of Rage" campaign on 25 January 2011 (Police Day) to include non-violent demonstrations, marches, and labor strikes in Cairo and other cities throughout Egypt. Protester grievances focused on police brutality, state emergency laws, lack of free speech and elections, high unemployment, rising food prices, inflation, and low minimum wages. Within several days of the onset of protests, President MUBARAK addressed the nation pledging the formation of a new government, and in a second address he offered additional concessions, which failed to assuage protesters and resulted in an escalation of the number and intensity of demonstrations and clashes with police. On 11 February, recently appointed Vice President SULIMAN announced MUBARAK's resignation and the assumption of national leadership by the Supreme Council of Armed Forces (SCAF). The SCAF dissolved the Egyptian parliament, suspended the nation's constitution, and formed a committee to recommend constitutional changes to facilitate a political transition through democratic elections. In early March, Essam SHARAF replaced Ahmed SHAFIK as Prime Minister and by mid-month a constitutional referendum was approved. In early July, the SCAF announced that elections for parliament would take place in September, but the date was later changed to November, and was to be followed by a redrafting of the constitution and a presidential election. In July 2011, opposition discontent over the slow pace of SCAF progress in transitioning the government led to a resumption of protests in Cairo and over a dozen other cities; less frequent, smaller demonstrations and protests continued through October. Following the arrest of MUBARAK and other high-ranking officials in mid-April, a trial in which MUBARAK is accused of corruption and complicity in the deaths of nearly 900 protesters began in early August, was temporarily suspended in September, and is scheduled to resume in late December. Elections for a new parliament were scheduled for late November 2011.

Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Libya and the Gaza Strip, and the Red Sea north of Sudan, and includes the Asian Sinai Peninsula

27 00 N, 30 00 E

Africa

slightly more than three times the size of New Mexico

2,450 km

desert; hot, dry summers with moderate winters

vast desert plateau interrupted by Nile valley and delta

petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, manganese, limestone, gypsum, talc, asbestos, lead, rare earth elements, zinc

35,300 sq km (2008)

86.8 cu km (1997)

periodic droughts; frequent earthquakes; flash floods; landslides; hot, driving windstorm called khamsin occurs in spring; dust storms; sandstorms

agricultural land being lost to urbanization and windblown sands; increasing soil salination below Aswan High Dam; desertification; oil pollution threatening coral reefs, beaches, and marine habitats; other water pollution from agricultural pesticides, raw sewage, and industrial effluents; limited natural freshwater resources away from the Nile, which is the only perennial water source; rapid growth in population overstraining the Nile and natural resources

controls Sinai Peninsula, only land bridge between Africa and remainder of Eastern Hemisphere; controls Suez Canal, a sea link between Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea; size, and juxtaposition to Israel, establish its major role in Middle Eastern geopolitics; dependence on upstream neighbors; dominance of Nile basin issues; prone to influxes of refugees from Sudan and the Palestinian territories

Egyptian 99.6%, other 0.4% (2006 census)

Arabic (official), English and French widely understood by educated classes

Muslim (mostly Sunni) 90%, Coptic 9%, other Christian 1%

82,079,636 (July 2011 est.)

1.96% (2011 est.)

24.63 births/1,000 population (2011 est.)

4.82 deaths/1,000 population (July 2011 est.)

-0.21 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2011 est.)

CAIRO (capital) 10.902 million; Alexandria 4.387 million (2009)

82 deaths/100,000 live births (2008)

2.97 children born/woman (2011 est.)

6.4% of GDP (2009)

2.83 physicians/1,000 population (2009)

1.7 beds/1,000 population (2009)

urban: 100% of population

rural: 98% of population

total: 99% of population

urban: 0% of population

rural: 4% of population

total: 1% of population (2008)

urban: 97% of population

rural: 92% of population

total: 94% of population

urban: 3% of population

rural: 8% of population

total: 6% of population (2008)

less than 0.1% (2009 est.)

11,000 (2009 est.)

fewer than 500 (2009 est.)

30.3% (2006)

6.8% (2008)

3.8% of GDP (2008)

republic

27 governorates (muhafazat, singular - muhafazat); Ad Daqahliyah, Al Bahr al Ahmar (Red Sea), Al Buhayrah, Al Fayyum, Al Gharbiyah, Al Iskandariyah (Alexandria), Al Isma'iliyah (Ismailia), Al Jizah (Giza), Al Minufiyah, Al Minya, Al Qahirah (Cairo), Al Qalyubiyah, Al Uqsur (Luxor), Al Wadi al Jadid (New Valley), As Suways (Suez), Ash Sharqiyah, Aswan, Asyut, Bani Suwayf, Bur Sa'id (Port Said), Dumyat (Damietta), Janub Sina' (South Sinai), Kafr ash Shaykh, Matruh, Qina, Shamal Sina' (North Sinai), Suhaj

28 February 1922 (from UK protectorate status; the revolution that began on 23 July 1952 led to a republic being declared on 18 June 1953 and all British troops withdrawn on 18 June 1956); note - it was ca. 3200 B.C. that the Two Lands of Upper (southern) and Lower (northern) Egypt were first united politically

Revolution Day, 23 July (1952)

11 September 1971; amended 22 May 1980, 25 May 2005, and 26 March 2007; note - constitution suspended by the military caretaker government 13 February 2011 and a new provisional constitution adopted 30 March 2011

mixed legal system based on Napoleonic civil law and Islamic religious law; judicial review by Supreme Court and Council of State (oversees validity of administrative decisions)

accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations; non-party state to the ICCt

18 years of age; universal and compulsory

bicameral system consists of the Advisory Council or Majlis al-Shura (Shura Council) that traditionally functions mostly in a consultative role (264 seats; 176 members elected by popular vote, 88 appointed by the president; members serve six-year terms; mid-term elections for half of the elected members) and the People's Assembly or Majlis al-Sha'b (518 seats; 508 members elected by popular vote, 64 seats reserved for women, 10 appointed by the president; members serve five-year terms)

Supreme Constitutional Court

Al-Geel; Democratic Peace Party; Nasserist Party [Ahmed HASSAN]; National Democratic Party or NDP (governing party) [Mohamed Hosni MUBARAK]; National Progressive Unionist Grouping or Tagammu [Rifaat EL-SAID]; New Wafd Party or NWP [Sayed EL-BEDAWY]; Social Justice Party [Mohamed Abdel Al HASAN]; Tomorrow Party [Ayman NOUR]

Muslim Brotherhood (technically illegal)

ABEDA, AfDB, AFESD, AMF, AU, BSEC (observer), CAEU, CICA, COMESA, D-8, EBRD, FAO, G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, LAS, MIGA, MINURSO, MONUSCO, NAM, OAPEC, OAS (observer), OIC, OIF, OSCE (partner), PCA, UN, UNAMID, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNISFA, UNMIL, UNMISS, UNOCI, UNRWA, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO

three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black; the national emblem (a gold Eagle of Saladin facing the hoist side with a shield superimposed on its chest above a scroll bearing the name of the country in Arabic) centered in the white band; the band colors derive from the Arab Liberation flag and represent oppression (black), overcome through bloody struggle (red), to be replaced by a bright future (white)

golden eagle

Occupying the northeast corner of the African continent, Egypt is bisected by the highly fertile Nile valley, where most economic activity takes place. Egypt's economy was highly centralized during the rule of former President Gamal Abdel NASSER but opened up considerably under former Presidents Anwar EL-SADAT and Mohamed Hosni MUBARAK. Cairo from 2004 to 2008 aggressively pursued economic reforms to attract foreign investment and facilitate GDP growth. The global financial crisis slowed the reform efforts. The budget deficit climbed to over 8% of GDP and Egypt's GDP growth slowed to 4.6% in 2009, predominately due to reduced growth in export-oriented sectors, including manufacturing and tourism, and Suez Canal revenues. In 2010, the government spent more on infrastructure and public projects, and exports drove GDP growth to more than 5%, but GDP growth in 2011 is unlikely to bounce back to pre-global financial recession levels, when it stood at 7%. Despite the relatively high levels of economic growth over the past few years, living conditions for the average Egyptian remain poor.

$497.8 billion (2010 est.)

$473.4 billion (2009 est.)

$452.3 billion (2008 est.)

$218.5 billion (2010 est.)

5.1% (2010 est.)

4.7% (2009 est.)

7.2% (2008 est.)

$6,200 (2010 est.)

$6,000 (2009 est.)

$5,900 (2008 est.)

26.2 million (2010 est.)

9% (2010 est.)

9.4% (2009 est.)

20% (2005 est.)

34.4 (2001)

18.1% of GDP (2010 est.)

21.8% of GDP (2010 est.)

-8% of GDP (2010 est.)

81.4% of GDP (2010 est.)

83.5% of GDP (2009 est.)

11.1% (2010 est.)

11.8% (2009 est.)

8.68% (31 December 2010 est.)

8.5% (31 December 2009 est.)

11.008% (31 December 2010 est.)

11.975% (31 December 2009 est.)

$38.5 billion (31 December 2010 est.)

$35.91 billion (31 December 2009 est.)

$168.3 billion (31 December 2010 est.)

$158.1 billion (31 December 2009 est.)

$141.6 billion (31 December 2010 est.)

$136.2 billion (31 December 2009 est.)

$82.49 billion (31 December 2010)

$89.95 billion (31 December 2009)

$85.89 billion (31 December 2008)

cotton, rice, corn, wheat, beans, fruits, vegetables; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats

textiles, food processing, tourism, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, hydrocarbons, construction, cement, metals, light manufactures

4.4% (2010 est.)

123.9 billion kWh (2008 est.)

109.1 billion kWh (2008 est.)

1.022 billion kWh (2008 est.)

896 million kWh (2008 est.)

662,600 bbl/day (2010 est.)

740,000 bbl/day (2010 est.)

163,000 bbl/day (2009 est.)

177,200 bbl/day (2009 est.)

4.4 billion bbl (1 January 2011 est.)

62.69 billion cu m (2009 est.)

44.37 billion cu m (2009 est.)

18.32 billion cu m (2009 est.)

0 cu m (2009 est.)

2.186 trillion cu m (1 January 2011 est.)

-$4.435 billion (2010 est.)

-$3.195 billion (2009 est.)

$25.02 billion (2010 est.)

$23.09 billion (2009 est.)

crude oil and petroleum products, cotton, textiles, metal products, chemicals, processed food

US 7.6%, Italy 7.3%, India 6.1%, Spain 5.4%, Saudi Arabia 5.4%, France 4.7%, Libya 4% (2010)

$51.54 billion (2010 est.)

$45.56 billion (2009 est.)

machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals, wood products, fuels

US 11.8%, China 10.4%, Germany 6.5%, Italy 6.4%, Saudi Arabia 4.1% (2010)

$35.79 billion (31 December 2010 est.)

$33.93 billion (31 December 2009 est.)

$34.91 billion (30 June 2011 est.)

$35.37 billion (31 December 2010 est.)

$73.1 billion (31 December 2010 est.)

$66.71 billion (31 December 2009 est.)

$5.448 billion (31 December 2010 est.)

$4.272 billion (31 December 2009 est.)

Egyptian pounds (EGP) per US dollar -

5.6124 (2010)

5.545 (2009)

5.4 (2008)

5.67 (2007)

5.725 (2006)

9.618 million (2010)

70.661 million (2010)

mix of state-run and private broadcast media; state-run TV operates 2 national and 6 regional terrestrial networks as well as a few satellite channels; about 20 private satellite channels and a large number of Arabic satellite channels are available via subscription; state-run radio operates about 70 stations belonging to 8 networks; 2 privately-owned radio stations operational (2008)

.eg

187,197 (2010)

20.136 million (2009)

86 (2010)

6 (2010)

condensate 320 km; condensate/gas 13 km; gas 6,628 km; liquid petroleum gas 956 km; oil 4,332 km; oil/gas/water 3 km; refined products 895 km; water 13 km (2010)

3,500 km (includes the Nile River, Lake Nasser, Alexandria-Cairo Waterway, and numerous smaller canals in Nile Delta; the Suez Canal (193.5 km including approaches) is navigable by oceangoing vessels drawing up to 17.68 m) (2010)

Ayn Sukhnah, Alexandria, Damietta, El Dekheila, Port Said, Sidi Kurayr, Suez

Army, Navy, Air Force, Air Defense Command

18-30 years of age for male conscript military service; service obligation 12-36 months, followed by a 9-year reserve obligation (2008)

3.4% of GDP (2005 est.)

Sudan claims but Egypt de facto administers security and economic development of Halaib region north of the 22nd parallel boundary; Egypt no longer shows its administration of the Bir Tawil trapezoid in Sudan on its maps; Gazan breaches in the security wall with Egypt in January 2008 highlight difficulties in monitoring the Sinai border; Saudi Arabia claims Egyptian-administered islands of Tiran and Sanafir

transit point for cannabis, heroin, and opium moving to Europe, Israel, and North Africa; transit stop for Nigerian drug couriers; concern as money laundering site due to lax enforcement of financial regulations